15 November, 2011

Visiting Aunt Gertie: A True Ghost Story

I don’t expect you will believe what I am about to tell you, but as real as I am living and breathing, the following events happened to me – something so terrifying that I have only spoken of it four times over the past twenty-four years. Even as I write these words, just knowing that I will have to talk about her sends chills down my spine.
I was sixteen in the summer of 1987 and like most teenagers in the small town of Hurricane, West Virginia, I liked to hang out at the gazebo in the center of town on the weekends. Excitement rarely occurred at the gazebo, but it was a nice place to congregate with friends. Sometimes we would sneak wine coolers and smoke cigarettes, but for the most part, we just talked about what happened at school that day or talk about so-and-so. One Friday night I was hanging out at the gazebo with a group of older boys. Terry was a year older than I was. He was tall, skinny and his face was covered in acne. His greasy hair hung over his face and large flakes of dandruff were peeking out between the oily strands. His younger brother, Charlie, was a year younger than I was. He was shorter than his brother, Terry, with the same greasy hair and pockmarked face. The only other person present was Alan Porter. He was three years older than I was. Alan was a jolly, heavy-set man with a receding hairline and kind blue eyes. He had a great sense of humor, and he and I could often be found hanging out at the gazebo.
Charlie had acquired some wine coolers, but because of our age, we were unable to consume them at the gazebo and were left trying to figure out a safe place to go in order to drink them without getting into trouble.
“We could go to Aunt Gertie’s,” Alan offered. Terry and Charlie both exchanged a frightened look and promptly stared at their shuffling feet.
“It’s awful late to be going out there. Are you sure it’s safe?” Terry replied. Alan chuckled and began walking to his car.
“It will be okay. She won’t mind. Now get in the car and let’s go!” Alan squeezed his large frame behind the wheel and started his baby blue 1980 Plymouth. Puffs of blue smoke barreled out of the tailpipe as the rusty engine sprang to life, filling the air with the smell of burnt oil and gasoline. Terry called shotgun and Charlie and I got into the backseat. The smell of engine grease and cigarettes permeated the inside of the car. The tattered backseat was filthy but, I didn’t care. I settled in and sat back to enjoy the ride.
“So who’s Aunt Gertie?” I asked as I lit a Winston. I had never heard of her before and assumed she was related to Alan in some way. Alan laughed and Charlie said, “You’ll find out soon enough.” We began to cruise through town at the mind-bending speed of twenty-five mph. Alan turned onto Sycamore Road from Main Street and began heading away from town. Houses of all sorts passed by my vision until all signs of life seemed to fade into the darkness. About five miles outside of town, we reached a span of road that was dark and empty of life. To the left lay a densely wooded area and to the right, a desolate field overgrown with weeds and wildflowers that seemed to go on forever. The car slowed down and we made a right turn onto a long, narrow, gravel driveway. I observed the weeds hitting the car on either side and noticed the center of the road was overgrown as well. It was obvious the driveway was rarely used.
“Who lives here?” I asked suspiciously.
“No one lives here anymore,” Alan said. “I have been taking care of the place for a while now. It’s cool, don’t worry.”
We drove on until we reached the end of the driveway. It was about nine o’clock in the evening and very dark, as there were no street lamps to light our way, only patches of pale moonlight. As Alan parked the car, I took in what surroundings I could see. The driveway ended at the back of the old, white two-story farmhouse. Large trees littered the yard, fingers of tree moss reached toward the damp earth. The house faced the main road; however, I was unable to make out any details of the front of the house. At the back of the house stood a detached garage with peeling, white paint and blacked out windows. Creepy, I thought.
We did not exit the car right away. It seemed as if they were waiting for something and I was getting a little creeped out. The low rumble of the car sounded loud in the night air as I anxiously waited for what would happen next. After we had sat in the driveway for about five minutes, Alan shut off the engine and exited the car. The rest of us followed. The house was dark and ominous, staring out at the world as if in defiance of some unknown slight. The place had such a sinister quality to it, and the heavy atmosphere began to make me uneasy. No one said a word, which was odd to me. The only sound was that of our feet crunching on the limestone gravel as we made our way to a door at the back of the house. Cheap, flimsy curtains covered the paint-splattered windows. The old, wooden back door had a large window that required another cheap curtain to cover it. After inserting the key and turning the lock, Alan slowly turned the knob and opened the door onto a small eating area off of the main kitchen.
Before entering, Alan reached inside and turned on the light. Pale, yellow light dimly lit the room. Ribbons of frayed wallpaper hung from the walls and littered the floor in front of a 1950s style chrome-legged dining table. As I entered the room, the musty smell of the old house reminded me of a cellar, cold and damp with a hint of apple butter. Knick-knacks of all sorts were scattered over every surface area of the table and shelves in the room. Tiny beagles, collies, and poodles stared at me with big, sad eyes and Precious Moments children knelt among the dusty shelves. Doilies of all sizes were haphazardly placed here and there. Jars of jellies, and God only knows what else, were lined up along the back wall on the table. Cracked linoleum crackled under my feet as we made our way into the outdated kitchen. Various kitchen appliances from eras long past sat haphazardly on chipped Formica countertops, worn from years of use. It was odd to me that no one lived here for I could see signs of everyday life everywhere I looked. Dishes were placed indiscriminately in a dish drainer. A half-empty bottle of pink Palmolive dish liquid sat on the porcelain sink. There was even a dishtowel hung over the handle of the oven, just like my mom hung hers. Nothing had been packed up or covered with dustsheets like normal people did when they moved or shut up a house.
We made our way to the next room, a dining room, complete with a cherry wood dining table. The table was covered with an old-fashioned lace tablecloth. There were six place mats, six dinner plate settings, six flatware settings, and a hideous centerpiece of leaves and some warped version of pink, silk roses, all covered in a layer of dust. What had happened to the people that lived in the house, I wondered. The dining room passed into a living room in front of the house.
Alan turned on the only light in the small room, a small side-table lamp that emitted a vague glow that barely managed to chase away the darkness. Terry and I sat on the couch, an olive green monstrosity. In front of us, stood a wooden coffee table empty of items except for a massive bible at its center lying open. The tasteless room décor dated to the early 1970s, wooden stick furniture swimming in olive green, brown, and orange.
Over the fireplace on the bulky, wooden mantle sat pictures of people of various ages, some in nice, expensive frames and others in cheap, plastic frames of assorted sizes. As I gazed at the faces, one stood out from all the rest. It was a black and white family photo, framed in antique silver and the face that stared out of that frozen moment in time was devoid of any human emotion. Blank, black eyes stared through me as if they were speaking to me alone, lacking any sparkle of life. Her hair was severely pulled back from her wrinkled face, tufts of it sticking out from behind her ears. Her mouth, smeared with dark lipstick, was only a grimacing line drawn through the stiff set of a stubborn jaw. It was a face of evil. The hair on the back of my neck stood up and a chill went through me. My throat felt parched all of a sudden and it was hard for me to swallow. I lifted shaking hands to brush the hair from my eyes and tore my gaze from that blank stare.
“Alan, who is that in the picture?” I asked.
“Which one?”
“The picture of the old woman there on the mantle. Who is she?” I repeated.
“Oh, my God! Look at the bible!” Terry screeched. All eyes were drawn to the bible on the coffee table. I could not believe what I was seeing! The pages were turning! Slowly at first, then they picked up momentum and were moving fast, as if a fan were blowing them; however, there was no fan, no wind, nothing that could have initiated it. I looked at everyone’s faces and saw complete shock and disbelief stamped in their eyes as page after page of the bible turned. I could not swallow. I could not breathe. My whole body shook with fear, yet I could not move. Suddenly, the pages stopped moving and there, sticking out of the center fold of the bible, was a newsprint article. I was unable to keep myself from retrieving it from the book.
“It’s an obituary,” I whispered. I stared at the yellowed slip of paper. The announcement stated that a gentleman had passed away suddenly. Although there was a picture of the man, it was hard to make out his features.
“That was her husband,” Alan said. “It’s time to go.” I placed the obituary back in the bible. He didn’t need to tell me twice! I was all too happy to leave that house. We all jumped up to leave. Terry’s face was white and his lips looked blue in the dim light. He was shivering as if he were cold, rubbing his arms and hugging himself. Charlie was in the kitchen and moving rapidly toward the exit. Alan seemed to be calm and in control. He smiled at me as he helped me walk through the house, assuring me that everything would be okay. I was terrified and he knew it. If he had not assisted me, I would have ended up in a puddle of terror on the floor, unable to move. We quickly made our way to his car. I couldn’t get in fast enough. Alan made his way to the back door, reached in to turn off the light, locked the door, turned toward us, and then he did something strange. He took off his tie (Alan always wore a tie) and began wiping his hands with it. As he slowly walked toward the car, I noticed that his face had no color and his eyes looked wild and full of fear. He made his way over to the passenger side of the car, to Terry.
“Are you okay, Alan?” asked Terry. Alan slowly shook his head “no” and continued to methodically wipe his hands on his tie. I was so scared at this point that I had to really work at controlling my bodily functions. I tried to see around Terry, but every time I leaned over, he would move so that he blocked my view.
“I want to go home,” I said. I was terrified. I was finally able to peek around Terry’s shoulder and I saw Alan’s hands. There was something smeared on them and he kept rubbing at it trying to erase it from his skin.
“What is that?” I said, out of breath now.
“I don’t know,” Terry said. “Alan, get in the car and let’s go. Come on, man. I’m scared shitless.” Alan slowly opened the car door, glancing over his shoulder at the back door of the house. He quickly got behind the wheel and we kicked gravel as we sped towards the main road, towards safety, towards sanity. As we drove away, many thoughts raced through my head. What the hell just happened back there? I mean, I knew it was supernatural, that it was a ghost. Alan turned onto the road at neck-breaking speed. We sped towards town as if the devil himself were racing toward us. Not one of us looked back. I couldn’t. I was afraid of what I might see following. Could ghosts follow you home?
After dropping the brothers off at home, Alan steered toward my house. We did not speak for a few minutes. He stared straight ahead, his tie still wrapped around his right hand.
“What is on your hands?” I whispered. It seemed as if he was not going to tell me, but he finally sighed and said,
“I don’t know but, it looks like blood.” His voice shook as he told me, and neither one of us has ever spoken of it again. I sat back and watched silhouettes of homes pass by, twinkles of lights in rooms where people were doing normal things. Suddenly I longed for my bed, the comfort of the heavy quilt my aunt had made me. I longed for the safety of home. I am never going back to that house, I thought. Oh, how I wish I had listened to myself that night.
Over the next several weeks, the four of us would go to Aunt Gertie’s; however, I did not re-enter the house, most times choosing instead to sit in the car ready to go at a moment’s notice. I was intrigued, yet scared out of my wits! It was exhilarating. How many people could say they had experienced such a thing? Each time we would experience small phenomena: a face peeping from the upstairs window, a ghostly figure walking from the overgrown garden at the back of the house. I remember one incident that still boggles my mind to this day. It happened on one of our regular visits.
“Wanna see something cool?” Charlie asked me. We were standing outside the house between the back door and the garage. Charlie’s scroungy hair hung over his eyes. He was bouncing from one foot to the other, hoping I would bite. The evening was approaching, making it difficult to see through the dense trees behind the house. I hated being there after dark. I had an overwhelming sense of dread and wanted to leave. Despite my foreboding, I reluctantly replied, “sure.”
“You see, if I throw a rock up there at that window, the rock will come back! Just like somebody threw it at me,” Charlie said.
“That’s ridiculous, man. No way,” I said. Charlie smiled his big, goofy smile and picked up a small, limestone pebble. Glancing at me to make sure I was paying attention, he tossed the rock at the window, her window. Nothing. The rock hit the gable above the window and bounced off, forever lost just like I knew it would.
“Ha!” I yelped, pointing my finger at Charlie. “I knew you were full of shit!” As I laughed at Charlie, I felt a hard tap on the right side of my head. “Ow! What the hell was that?”
“Rock came back,” Charlie replied with that stupid grin of his.
“Whatever, Charlie,” I said. I tried to laugh it off yet, could not shake the fact that something had hit me from above. I looked up at the second floor window. Old fashioned, lace curtains hung over the window, the kind my grandma had when I was a little kid. No light peeped through and the window appeared to be tightly shut. Wait! Did that curtain just move? Fear prickled the back of my neck.
“Come on guys. It’s time to go,” I said and almost ran to the truck. I did not return to the house for several weeks after that incident; however, about a week before my high school classes started, I was hanging out at Peabody’s Pool Hall, a popular teen hangout in town. I had met up with a friend, Lisa Lewis. We had been playing pool for some time when Lisa began tugging on her finger.
“This damned ring is messing up my shot!” She tugged and tugged at the ring on her middle finger. Lisa had huge, chunky rings on every finger on both hands. The culprit causing her problems was a massive, hideous ring. She tugged and twisted the ring to no avail.
“Screw it,” she said.
“Well, look who’s here,” I heard over the noise of the crowd.
“Hey, Alan. What’s goin’ on?”
“We got some beers and we were gonna go out to Aunt Gertie’s and drink ‘em. Do you guys wanna come?”
I really didn’t want to go, but Lisa was all for it. I wanted to chicken out because it was late, almost midnight, and I had never been out there that late at night. Weren’t spirits more powerful after midnight? Lisa hadn’t ever been there at all. What if she freaked out? Maybe nothing would happen. Yeah, right. I was not ready to go home yet and if Lisa went, I would be stuck alone, so like word vomit, the words tumbled forth from my mouth.
“Sure, let’s go. Sounds fun,” I said and walked outside to the car.
On the way to the house, Charlie filled Lisa in on what we had been experiencing over the past several weeks. Instead of freaking out, Lisa was excited and couldn’t wait to see the ghost. We reached the driveway and slowly approached the house. Lisa was quiet as she took in her surroundings. Alan pulled the car in the driveway between the house and the garage. Lisa wanted to go inside and check things out. Terry and I chose to stay in the car while Alan and Charlie took Lisa in the house. For the life of me, I could not understand Alan’s lack of fear or why he would want to go in the house after all that had happened. Terry was in the front passenger seat while I remained in the back seat behind him.
The night air was damp with the fog that lay along the hollows. The smell of wood smoke and wet leaves hung in the air. Tall, black trees reached their spindly arms toward the dark sky. The only sounds I could hear were the incessant chirping of possibly millions of crickets and my heartbeat, fast and hard.
“Oh, my God. Oh, shit.” Terry said it over and over at just above a whisper as he looked straight ahead. I looked at the back of Terry’s head, too afraid to look beyond his shoulder, too afraid to see what had caused a grown man’s spine to shiver as if an electric current had traveled from head to tail and back again. “She’s there,” he whispered. I felt the blood drain from my face and I was taking in small, shallow breaths, afraid, so afraid. I didn’t want to look, but I could not help myself. I had to know what he was seeing. He reached across the seat and honked the horn. HONK! HONK! The sound was deafening. And there, just beyond the right front end of the car, was Aunt Gertie. I had never seen her as vividly as I did that night. I remember every detail as if it happened yesterday. Her hair was matted to her head and face with what appeared to be blood. She was covered in it. Her face streaked with it. She wore a navy blue, calf-length dress with big, gold-tone buttons on it. She was so real, so solid. She was not ghost-like this time. It was like something out of a horror movie. I could not believe what I was seeing, yet there she was, staring at the back of the house. The moment that I looked at her face, she slowly turned her head and seemed to look right at me. It all happened in a matter of seconds, but it felt like it occurred in slow motion and went on for hours.
“We have to go! We have to go now, Terry!” I said as loudly as I dared. I had the sudden urge to urinate and my hands shook as I grabbed his arm. Alan, Charlie, and Lisa burst from the back door of the house.
“What the hell is going on out here?” Alan yelled.
“Get in the damned car now, Alan! Get me the hell out of here!” Terry said. By now, the three of them had noticed her. Lisa began screaming and they all jumped into the car. Alan’s foot hit the gas and we spun out in the gravel as we raced away. Lisa kept crying and looking at her hand. I tried to console her, but I was in no position to be positive at that moment either. It felt like every hair on my body was standing erect and my stomach felt heavy. When we could no longer see the empty darkness behind us and we returned to civilization, Lisa turned to me.
“My ring is gone. The one I couldn’t get off earlier. It’s gone.” She sniffled and lifted up her bejeweled hand and sure enough, her middle finger was bare. We just looked at each other for a minute. Although the ring wasn’t an expensive ring, I could see in Lisa’s face that it held some sentimental value to her.
“Maybe it fell off or something,” I said, although I didn’t believe myself. I had seen how Lisa struggled to remove that ring. How could it have just fallen off? Where could it be? I didn’t know. We informed the guys what had happened and we all had made a pact to go back to the house the next day to look for it. We agreed to go in the afternoon while it was still daylight. It would be my last visit to Aunt Gertie’s.
The house was not so sinister in the daytime. The sunlight filtered through the trees, dappling the house and yard with light. The house seemed smaller, less threatening. Although I didn’t think Aunt Gertie would make an appearance during the daylight hours, I refused to go inside the house at first. We split up, Lisa and I searched the driveway while Alan looked inside the house. I carefully perused the gravel looking for a red sparkle, hoping to find the ring quickly and get out of there. Out of the corner of my eye, something flashed in the sun. I walked over to it and picked it up. To my horror, it was a large, gold-tone button! I quickly closed my fingers over it. Could it really have fallen off of her dress the night before? Was that physically possible? I shoved the button in my pocket, choosing not to tell anyone what I had found. I was terrified to even speak it out loud for fear of Aunt Gertie. What if she wanted it back?
Alan convinced Lisa to search the dining room area in the house. Somehow, the daylight dispelled a lot of the foreboding I felt and I agreed to help her. We could not find the ring. Giving up, we went into the living room to look around.
“I didn’t make it this far into the house last night, so it is pointless to look in here,” Lisa said. She and I began to look at the various pictures around the room. The pictures on the mantle seemed to be in different places, though I could not be sure. I closely examined the pictures, picking them up, putting them down.
“Well, I think we should get out of here. Your ring isn’t here. You must have lost it somewhere else,” I said, turning to her.
“Oh, my God!” Lisa said as she pointed behind me. Once again, the hair on the back of my neck stood up.
“What, Lisa?” She was still pointing behind me, one hand over her mouth, her eyes wide. I turned toward the mantle and there, where I had looked just seconds before, was Lisa’s ring just as pretty as you please. I knew I had not placed the ring there. It was impossible that the ring was sitting there. Impossible! I ran toward the back of the house, racing to escape that place once and for all. Lisa followed closely behind and we both hurried into the back seat of the car.
“Did you find it?” Alan asked as he approached the car.
“Yes, we are ready to leave now. Alan, please, let’s leave now,” I pleaded. Without asking any questions, Alan quickly locked up the house and we promptly left. I was never to return to that house.
Later that night, as I laid awake in bed, curled in a fetal position, terrified of shadows and jumping at every foreign sound, I remembered the button in my pocket. I quietly crept out of bed, careful not to wake my family and searched in the dark for the jeans I had been wearing. I reached into my pocket and closed my hand around the cold metal object. What if she wanted it back, I thought. What if she came to get it? Terror coursed through my body and my heart pounded in my ears. I didn’t live that far from that house. She could easily find me. What was I to do? I looked at the clock. It was late, after 1:00 a.m. Tap. Tap. Tap. Was that someone at my window? Consumed by paranoia, without thinking of the consequences, I tugged on my jeans and threw on a t-shirt. I carefully looked out of my window. Only the night sky and my mother’s rose bush could be seen. No one was there. I slowly raised the window and popped out the screen. I stopped, listening for my mom and dad. Surely, they had heard all of the commotion, but all I heard was the sound of my rapid, shallow breathing. I quickly climbed outside and ran to my bicycle. My destination was about a mile down the dark, country road. I was consumed by fear yet, determined to rid myself of the button.
Repeating the Lord’s Prayer under my breath the entire way, I finally came upon the old, brick church. I skidded to a halt at the steps at the front of the building and retrieved the button from my pocket. I carefully laid the button on the steps of that church, praying to God for protection from evil. I sat down on the steps and cried for about ten minutes. Relief that it was over overwhelmed me.
I never returned to that house off Sycamore Road. Many years later, I ran into an old friend of mine that lived near the old farmhouse. He told me the house had been torn down years ago and a new subdivision sprawled out over the property. I thought to myself that even though the house was gone, she must still be there haunting the property. I wonder sometimes if anyone sees her still, in that navy blue dress with one gold-tone button missing, covered in blood. I remember that summer so vividly, the events embedded in my mind, sometimes haunting my dreams. I have had other ghostly experiences since that summer, but nothing comes close to the phenomena of that summer in 1987 when I learned without a doubt that we share our world with other beings, beings that may or may not want to be seen.

12 November, 2011

Dr. David Lucas: A Journey to Self Discovery (Shawnee Tribe Research)


I have always been drawn to the Native American cultures, especially my ancestors, the Cherokee. Native Americans have struggled throughout the last three hundred years to maintain their heritage and their culture interest me greatly. I have often wondered what it was like to live among them, to learn their ways. I am saddened by their plight and by the blatant disregard the American government has toward one of the most peaceful people on the earth. No other nation has had more treaties broken between itself and the United States. Americans use derogatory terms like Indian Giver, which means to give something and then take it back. That statement is backwards. It is the white people, the Europeans, that gave and then took back. The Europeans came and took their land by force, by treachery and deceit, using whatever highly unethical means they could to do it.
As a student of higher education, I have learned very little about the plight of the Native Americans. We do not learn about the brutal, disgusting ways our white ancestors dealt with the Native American Nations. We learn about other countries’ atrocities against human kind, such as, Adolf Hitler and his extermination project during World War II or Saddam Hussein’s torture of his own people; however, we never hear about America’s dark past. It is covered over with positive reasoning and swept under the rug. For instance, did you know that Christopher Columbus’ men “smashed [Native American] babies’ heads on rocks in front of their mothers” or that they “sliced people in two for fun, in bets over whose sword was the sharpest” or that the Native Americans called the Pilgrims “cut-throat” people because those same Christian and supposedly civilized people invited the Natives to eat with them and then slit their throats (Roppolo)?
Today, Native Americans strive to keep their culture alive for their descendants. My interest lies in helping them do that. I want to further my education so that I may be of some help to the Native Americans, whose blood runs in my veins. When I discovered that Dr. Lucas, a Communications Professor at Ohio University, had spent a full year living with the Shawnee, I could not pass up the opportunity to hear of his adventure and to find out for myself how the Native Americans view the world around them and how they keep their traditions alive.
Dr. David Lucas is a tenured faculty member of Ohio University Southern and has been with the university twenty-one years. He obtained a Bachelor’s degree in Theology and another in Communication Studies at the University of Kentucky. He obtained a Master’s degree in Communication Studies from Marshall University and an additional Master’s degree in International Studies with an emphasis in Latin American Studies from Ohio University. He finished his Doctorate in Higher Education through Ohio University, as well. His humble office is littered with Native American décor. There are Navajo blankets here and there and books and magazines on Native American culture strewn around his office. At the time of our interview, Lucas is nicely dressed and his head sports the remains of his annual, summer mohawk hairstyle. His demeanor is respectful and it is apparent that he holds all Native Americans in high honor.
Lucas was born and raised in Freetown, Indiana. His home property is on a former Miami (pronounced Me-ah-me) village site. Lucas is a descendant of the Huron tribe and is proud of his Native American heritage. The Miami and the Huron Native American tribes were allies and both were indigenous to the Indiana territory. Through the guidance of his grandmother, a full-blood Wyandotte (pronounced Wan-dote-tay) Native American, Lucas learned the ways of his ancestors while growing up.
By the age of twelve, he knew he had to quest for his Native American name. According to Lucas, Native Americans name their children differently than other world cultures. In Native American culture, when a child is born, he or she is given a temporary name. Once the child reaches a certain age, he or she must go on their name quest. The first step is to make a smudge, a small bunch of dried grasses and herbs. It is up to the person making the smudge what grasses and herbs they are going to use to make it. A popular herb used is sweet grass, a sweet smelling grass used as a sachet or spread upon the floor of the wigwam to repel odors. It grows in marshy areas and used to grow abundantly in the Ohio area. The young David Lucas gathered his herbs and grasses together and entered a wooded area near his home. It is required that one fasts while on their name quest; therefore, he only drank water for the three days of his journey. He waited all day along the edge of a path for some form of sign among the bramble and bushes, and around four o’clock, a red fox trotted down the path. He knew that it was a sign, but he wasn’t sure where it would lead. He went home and returned to the woods the next day. Again he waited all day and nothing happened until around four o’clock. To his surprise, a gray fox trotted up the path. Again, David returned home, not exactly sure what the significance of the two foxes was. The next day he entered the woods for what would be his third and final time. He waited until around four-thirty and to his amazement the red fox came down the path and the gray fox came up the path and when they both met, they fought each other right in front of him. He thought at that moment, after fasting for three days and waiting patiently, that he had finally been guided to his Native American name: Warrior Fox. He described the experience as being very spiritual, and he has never forgotten it. Although Lucas has not formally studied Native American studies, throughout his adult life, he has continued to learn and grow in his heritage by learning through experience with the Shawnee tribe and through reading.
When Lucas had completed his degrees and moved to the Southern Ohio area, he started noticing the name of the Shawnee tribe everywhere he went, such as Shawnee State University, Shawnee Used Cars, Shawnee Computers, etc. He became involved with the local Boy Scouts of America, and during his first real experience as a leader, at Boy Scout camp, he observed a Native American re-enactment. He was appalled by what he saw. He was embarrassed and remembers:
You know, a couple of guys got sheets and wrapped them around and I thought they were Arabs instead of [sic], or Ku Klux Klan, I couldn’t tell which. They were attempting to portray the Native American culture, and it made me angry for the boys, and it made me angry that it was such a slough off for a culture that I deeply respect.
After witnessing the poor portrayal of Native American culture, Lucas began searching for information on the Shawnee. Because the tribes relied on an oral history told from generation to generation, there was little written record of the Shawnee, or any Native American culture for that matter. They utilized symbolic signs or pictographs to communicate in writing, which, according to Lucas, developed into a type of pictograph shorthand over time. He noted that at one time, in the 1700s, a couple of men came from the East to conduct research and were “able to compile a short alphabet and language for the Shawnee.” Their language is comprised of fewer words than that of the English language. Lucas, after much searching, was able to find a published Shawnee vocabulary dictionary. He showed me two of the books, volumes fourteen and twenty-one. They were originally published in 1860 and were entitled, “Denny’s Vocabulary of Shawnee” by Ebenezer Denny (Denny). The books are very small with a list of English words along with the Shawnee word and correct pronunciation inside.
In the course of his research, Lucas unfortunately discovered that there were very few Shawnee still remaining in the Southern Ohio area. He mentioned there were Shawnee in the Bellefonte, Ohio area; however, they were not full blood Shawnee. He directed his search to the internet and began to seek out literature and was disappointed with his results. After studying in that manner for some time, he finally called the tribal chieftain in Oklahoma and introduced himself. Lucas made it clear to the chieftain that although he wanted to conduct research, he wanted the “full truth” about the Shawnee. He had no intention of interfering in any way. He was granted permission to study the Shawnee on their reservation and his journey began, a journey that would lead him into the heart of a people long forgotten and would leave him changed forever after.
When Lucas began speaking about the Native Americans, the atmosphere in the room changed. Suddenly, the air was heavy with anticipation and respect. I knew then that I would always remember this interview. The sense of pride and deep respect that he holds for the Native Americans is profound. His entire body language changed. Surrounded by Native American motif, he became quiet, yet poised for action as he spoke. In a hushed voice, he began with a brief history of the Shawnee tribe.
The Shawnee first came into contact with the white man, the French, along the Ohio River, or Oyo, meaning “Beautiful River;” however, the tribe extended further north to Chillicothe and beyond, spreading in all directions. According to Dr. Lucas, Chilogatha, meaning “First Man Town,” was the main Shawnee village on the outskirts of town, named so because the chief resided there; however, the white man was unable to pronounce the name of the village so, it became Chillicothe. The same thing happened with the name of the tribe. The Shawnoa became the Shawnee to the white man.
Lucas went on to explain that after the Greenville Treaty of 1795 (United States Government) and the Indian Removal Act of 1830, (Fixico) orchestrated and implemented by President Andrew Jackson, the Shawnee, along with numerous other Native American tribes, were forced west of the Mississippi. They were forced to give up their homeland again and to give up their heritage. According to Lucas, it went much deeper than the loss of their land. He became very quiet for a moment. I could tell he was deeply moved by what he was about to say. He quietly related to me that the various tribes did not believe that it was their land to sell or cede to the United States. They did not believe that the United States had a right to it either. It was not either of theirs to sell to the other. Lucas mentioned Tecumseh[1], a Shawnee Warrior leader, who, according to Lucas, was an odd man. Odd because he was over six feet tall and “he was well spoken, a good orator because he couldn’t read and write” (Lucas). Tecumseh had formed an alliance with the Midwestern tribes and was joined by his brother, Tenskwataya, also known as “The Prophet.” Both of them believed that, “Native Americans held collective rights to land that could not be sold or bartered without the consent of all” (Pritker) Tecumseh himself addressed the Governor of the Indiana Territory, William Henry Harrison on August 12, 1810. In his speech he stated the following regarding the barter of the land of his forefathers: “That it [the continent] then all belonged to red men, children of the same parents, placed on it by the Great Sprit that made them, to keep it, to traverse it, to enjoy its productions, and to fill it with the same race. Once a happy race” (Tecumseh). Tecumseh went on to say, “no part has a right to sell, even to each other, much less to strangers; those who want all, and will not do with less. The white people have no right to take the land from the Indians, because they had it first; it is theirs” (Tecumseh). The Shawnee and other tribes fruitlessly fought for their lands and were eventually forced west into reservations, which, according to Lucas was an abysmal failure. He describes it as “artificial ways to handle their [the government] relationship with the Native Americans. I mean, it’s like taking them a herd of buffalo and dropping them on the ground and saying ‘here, eat this’ and then later, when the buffalo are all gone then ‘here, take this beef’ and it was full of worms” (Lucas). To put it in perspective he explains,
If somebody rushed in here, grabbed you, and took you to some remote part of India or China and dropped you and said ‘Now survive.’ What would you do? Where would you begin? You couldn’t speak their language. You had none of your elements that you normally have, none of your resources, none of your tools that you normally carry with you, and so you sort of start scratching it out, but it takes you years to recover, if you ever recover, and emotionally and mentally, you’re exhausted. You’re frightened. It’s a terrible thing” (Lucas).
According to Lucas, the government only pretended to take care of the Native Americans, instead of “saying that these are human beings and we gotta do something for them” (Lucas). A small portion of the Native American families stayed east of the Mississippi, eking out an existence in the wilderness. Those that could read and write or owned land were permitted to stay. The Europeans “wanted them to be Kentucky farmers with a plow and a mule, to be civilized” (Lucas). Instead of incorporating Native American culture into Western culture, they wanted to change the Native American. The Native Americans refused to give up their heritage, yet having no choice, removed themselves to various parts of the country the government allowed them to settle. Each time the white man needed to expand, they simply forced the Native Americans to move again. The Shawnee moved south to the Florida Panhandle, into Georgia; however, the majority settled in the Oklahoma area and remained there.
In 2003, Lucas first visited with the Shawnee in a village called Shawnee, Oklahoma. The Shawnee welcomed him with wariness and suspicion at first. They thought he was another Native American “wannabe;” however, Lucas remained in the background, never interfering or asking questions. He says his biggest challenge was figuring out ways to stay out of their way. He began his research as an observer, but quickly gained their trust and was slowly integrated into the tribe. Throughout the remainder of his research, he was invited to participate in often private and always sacred practices. He explained that the Shawnee had chosen to take individual tracts of land as opposed to one large tract of land. In Lucas’s opinion, “it splintered the tribe” because Native American tribes are communal societies, meaning they share everything. They work as a whole to sustain themselves financially and agriculturally. Yet, even though they lived in separate dwellings he quickly saw the deep love and communion between the tribal members. Communication and equality was essential to the tribe and its inner workings. As it has been since time immoral, the women are equal to the men and have a voice.
The tribe strives to maintain their traditions and heritage in many ways. The Shawnee struggle to keep one foot in their culture and one foot in the modern world. They must work, “they must go to Wal-Mart,” but the old ways and traditions are still prominent in their society. For instance, the “warrior” mentality is still prevalent. Young Shawnee that serve in the United States military are greatly honored and cared for. They keep their culture alive by keeping age-old traditions alive. For example, the tradition of holding village council is an important and efficient way to communicate with all tribal members and to solve any issues that come up.
There are no televisions in the village, they hold Council. The entire tribe meets and a stick is passed around to each person. The person holding the stick speaks to the tribe, and then passes it to the next and so on. “The eldest go first.” As he mentioned that, he laughed, “Because they fall asleep quicker than all of the others” and they need to have the opportunity to have their say. This keeps the tribe informed and fair.
He was permitted to observe a traditional game the Shawnee play for sport, yet it is also a tribal ritual. It is similar to American football. The men and women of all ages are split up into two teams and they have a ball made of deer leather. They can hit it, kick it, or grab it with their arms. There are lots of rules but, there is no real winner. The game is more like a play that “acts out the strata of the tribe,” Lucas says. For example, if an old woman gets the ball, the “young buck warriors pretend to get the ball and out of respect for their wisdom, they fall down at their feet.” If a princess or virgin gets the ball, she is tested physically, but she is held in high honor. If a young buck gets the ball, he is tackled and “the others just clobber him.” It is a playacting of how the tribe works.
Everything the Shawnee do is spiritual and deeply significant. The simple act of giving thanks for their daily bread is an intricate dance ritually performed on sacred dance grounds. Lucas got the opportunity to witness the sacred Bread Dance at the sacred White Oak dancing ground. The women are dressed in beautiful, colorful dresses with their hair pulled back. They dance around and drop loaves of bread from their aprons while staring out beyond the crowd, beyond the sky. Lucas marvels at the memory: “They weren’t seeing us. They were looking into the future. It was an incredible moment, lasting for hours.” The ritualistic beating of the drums and the atmosphere took him back in time, especially when the Stomp Dance was performed later that evening. The Stomp Dance is a practical dance with symbolic meaning. Lucas explains that in the old days, you would be walking along fields of high grass and all of a sudden come upon a clearing in the middle of nowhere. The Native Americans were most likely responsible for that clearing. They were a nomadic people, and when they would move from place to place they had to deal with the high grass being in the way of setting up camp. They entire tribe would gather and dance in a circle with drums and chanting, stomping the grass down into a carpet for their homes, chasing away the snakes and vermin, so that they could live comfortably. Today, the dance is still performed, but it is more symbolic in nature. The Stomp Dance seems to have made the most impact on Lucas than any of the other dances he observed. He describes his feelings while observing the dance:
I was watching this intricate event occur and thought to myself, I am so glad I am not a white man tied to this tree because it was literally frightening. Here’s why; because there was so much emotion in that dance . . . what if they had that fire in the center and they were dancing and then they all turned toward me? I understand now why that was so frightening [to the white man] because they were so unified, so unified in purpose and emotionally unified and vocalizations; they just knew the cadence. They knew the steps. Nobody directed them. It was learned generation to generation. It was a unifying experience.
He does not believe that there is anything that we do “on this side of Native American culture” that comes close to the unifying experience in that dance. Western culture divides itself into individual groups, “Not everyone comes to the kitchen, to the revival. Native Americans have a purpose and are unified in everything they do.”
According to Lucas, we, as a society, think of ourselves as in nature. Native Americans believe they are nature, that we all are connected to the earth and everything in it. “The wind, the rain, the snow, the four directions, four seasons, everything is all connected. Their belief is similar to Asian culture, yin and yang, the balance of nature. If you are in balance with your surroundings you aren’t stressed out,” he says and Lucas finds this philosophy liberating because everything that happens is for a reason and he is at peace with that. He believes in the full circle of life, a sort of what comes around goes around mentality. He monitors himself and does not get stressed out. He states, “Just because someone says you have to do something, doesn’t mean you have to do it. Who made up that rule? You choose where and when to spend your time. You don’t waste time and you don’t stay idle. Visiting with a family member is much more memorable and fulfilling than, say, going to King’s Island for the day.” He determines who and what is most important in his life. Lucas does not participate in idle gossip and will walk away from it. He says that, “each person has to measure what is important to them” in order to stay in balance and at peace.
As stated before, the Shawnee are a deeply spiritual people; however, contrary to popular pop culture belief, the Native Americans do not believe that there are gods everywhere or in everything. Lucas explains that the Native American god is Mother Earth. She “enlivens everything around us . . . the wind carries the breath of God. The clouds carry the joy of God. The rain brings the blessing of God” (Lucas).The earth is in tune with every animal, every living thing, and the Native Americans strive to become one with the earth, to be in harmony with the earth, to be at peace with themselves and their surroundings, wherever that may be. There is a Father Sky and the great Grandmother Spirit that nurtures us and cares for us.
The spiritual practice of the “Sweat Lodge” ceremony is important in their tribe, a rite of passage to the individual’s destiny. Lucas was privileged to take part in a sweat lodge ceremony himself. He describes it as an incredible, exhilarating experience that changed his life. Lucas explains that what is important to remember about Native American tradition is that the four corners are key to who we are as individuals. North, South, East, and west; therefore, when one takes part in a sweat lodge ceremony he must enter the lodge four times, each time the lodge is hotter and more difficult to withstand. Young warriors heat the volcanic rocks from outside and continually add them to the pile of rocks inside the lodge, pouring water on them. Only the shaman can determine the amount of rocks needed for the ceremony. Lucas says the ritual is a “worship experience.” There are always four lessons, four passages centered around the “idea that we are moving through the circle of life.” The Shawnee and other Native American tribes build their sweat lodges so that one must “hug the bosom of Mother Earth. That is the purpose of the sweat lodge ceremony; to become one with Mother Earth. One must lie as close to the ground as possible, humbling himself before Mother Earth. Another reason one lies close to the ground is because of the intense heat within the lodge. If one sits up during the ceremony he may perish from the heat. Lucas states this is the reason inexperienced individuals that attempt the sweat lodge sometimes die during the process. One such incident that Lucas mentions was the October, 2009 Sweat Lodge disaster led by self-help guru, James Ray. Mr. Ray had invited individuals seeking harmony and wealth in their lives to join him on a quest for spiritual health and “harmonious wealth” through the use of a sweat lodge (Katz). He charged the individuals up to $10,000 for the experience. His inexperience in performing the ceremony became apparent when two people died and nineteen were injured during the retreat. The article explains that Ray did not use “breathable fabric” to cover the lodge and therefore, the heat could not escape properly. He also had too many people in the lodge, up to sixty, when a sweat lodge typically holds twelve people. According to the article, the people were suffocating due to lack of oxygen (Katz). Lucas believes that looking for wealth and using the sacred ritual of the sweat lodge to do it, is appalling and sad, and unfortunately lives were lost in the process. Lucas’s experience with the sweat lodge went according to centuries old Native American tradition and care. He describes his experience with the ritual:
You have to go back to the real man of who you are, so the closer you get to the ground the easier it is for you to breathe . . . You are humbled. You are flat. You are sweating, all of those poisons are leaving your body and this shaman, the wise leader, is quietly saying things to you and suddenly the world disappears. Your troubles disappear because the immediate challenge of just surviving that heat and his words are all you know . . . then you exit [the structure] and pour water on yourself, like a baptism. You sit there for a few minutes and he [the shaman] calls you back. You don’t have to go, but you know that if you stop, you will miss a valuable lesson.
Lucas repeated that process four times, as required, and each time, instead of becoming harder to withstand, the intense heat became easier to endure. The second time through he felt calmer and able to focus. By the fourth time through he had a sensation of elated jubilation, almost an epiphany, as if he were having visions. He knew who he was and that he was one with the earth and he had a purpose. He felt at peace with himself and one with the earth. He has been forever changed.
Lucas states he could not have learned the significance of the dances, the rituals, or the Shawnee’s hopes and dreams for the future if not for a man called Warrior. Lucas describes him as a proud, upright solid Native American that taught him the symbolism of the rituals, took him to the tribal center, and shared with him the plight of the casinos, describing them as a double-edged sword. The money earned from the casino certainly provided opportunities for the tribe such as a medical center and paid medical care for their tribe. The down side of the casino business greatly troubles the tribe; addictions to gambling, drinking, and prostitution, are unfortunate side effects of living and working in that environment. They are forced to buy into the capitalistic society that destroyed their nations, scattered their tribes, and erased their heritage.
The individual that by far made the most significant impression on Dr. Lucas, however, is Chief Red Morning.[2] Lucas approached the chief and asked if he could speak with him. The chief obliged and Lucas sat down “not equal to him because he is the chief” (Lucas). He would not allow himself to be photographed. Chief Red Morning was about eighty-three years of age, his long, silver hair pulled back in typical Native American fashion. He wore a rust colored Ribbon shirt embossed with faint embroidery. The shirt is called a Ribbon shirt because it has four ribbons woven into the chest area of the fabric. There were two on the left breast and two on the right. The ribbons were four different colors: red, because of the north wind; green, the color of the green waters of the south; gold, the color of the rising sun; and blue, the color of the setting sun. Notice again the reference to north, south, east and west. The chief sat facing east and he quietly “told the heart of the Shawnee people” (Lucas). He said that the Shawnee never wanted war and only wanted to live in laughter and harmony. Even now, they just want harmony in the tribe. The chief said all of this looking straight ahead, never wavering. He spoke of how the white man introduced alcohol to the Native Americans and how he could not understand our ways and why we thought we were so much better than the Native Americans. At this statement, Lucas whispered, “I will never forget that moment. There was a light breeze, probably sixty-eight degrees and he, he spoke and I could hear through the pass, the cascades of a tribe lost.” I could not help but notice the raw emotion on Lucas’s face as he spoke of this great, wise man.
When asked what it was like to return to the modern world, Lucas looked thoughtful for a moment and then replied, “You realize that restoration in the spirit and heart is very important. I suppose that’s why people return to church on Sundays because you realize that re-consecration and that rediscovery of that peaceful moment is critical to who we are” (Lucas).
Since 2003, Lucas has returned to the Shawnee village twice. He continues to study Native American history and culture on his own. One thing that bothers Lucas in a tremendous way is the fact that the Native Americans are not given credit for helping the Europeans when they first arrived in our history books. They are often depicted as savage, hedonistic people that were bent on murdering the white man. He uses the example of Lewis and Clark and the expedition that we Americans have studied and praised, made documentaries about, in which the Native American is never mentioned, and yet Lewis and Clark could have never survived without the instruction of the Native Americans. Lucas states,
This is what is most frightening. History is always told from the perspective of the culture writing it . . . Native Americans have their perspective, but don’t understand why they are never considered. You hear about Hispanic or Black [contributions and/or sufferings], but no American president says anything about Native Americans. I don’t get that. They’ve been shoved off . . . surely there was a way that we could have done this differently” (Lucas).
Dr. Kimberly Roppolo, a Native American Studies professor at the University of Oklahoma, tends to agree with Lucas on the issue of racial exclusion facing the Native American tribes. Being Native American herself, she strives to bring tribal issues to light, both modern and old. She states in her article, Symbolic Racism, History, and Reality, that:
American Indian Nations are the only sovereign nations the United States government has ever broken over five hundred treaties with, violations that . . . gives these nations the legal justification to issue one huge eviction notice to the United States, the only nations whose citizens are owed . . . billions of dollars in money that was held in ‘trust’ for Indians thought incapable of being responsible for it (Roppolo).
She goes on to say that even today, the majority of Native American reservations are poorer than most third world countries because the government has not paid restitution for their breach of contract(s). The modern Native American struggles with an identity crisis and also has to deal with,
. . . Survivor guilt for being alive and suckered in by colonialist capitalism when so many were butchered in its creation, the shame of being descended from those unable to protect our women and children in the face of a demonic killing machine . . . the shame of women who descended from those raped and tortured, or those who married or enconcubined [sic] themselves to European men as a means of survival (Roppolo).
For these very reasons, I feel that it is imperative that I continue to study Native American culture in order to expose the truth and to give the Native Americans a voice to tell their story, their true story.
The knowledge, wisdom, and spiritual enlightenment that he has gained from his total surrender to the Shawnee culture will live with Lucas forever. He is ever watchful of his surroundings. He listens to the hawk, the owl, the crow. They fly and therefore, “are closer to the great spirit and have significance and they bring you messages . . . it is up to you to figure out what that message is. Nothing is coincidental when everything is in harmony” (Lucas). He advises his scouts to stay vigilant of their surroundings, to pick up the feather at their feet. He has taken his daughter into the desert to quest for her name, which is quite an amazing story. After fasting for three days and nights in the desert, they were led by a red fox to a rock formation. Finding nothing, they began their return to camp and there, in the middle of a desert, was a large turtle. If that wasn’t strange enough, another turtle was close by. As a result, her Native American name is Two Turtles.
I asked Lucas if he had any words he would like to share with me before ending our interview and he said something so unexpected to me. He said that I began this journey writing a paper; however, if I did not continue to look into this, continue to study, I would not be content. He did not believe that it was happenstance that I made an appointment with him. He looked at me and said, “Your destiny lies beyond what you are doing now. This is a sense that I get that you have been brought to this place for a reason . . . there is something more for you and you will find it and be at peace with it.” This statement hit me at the core of my being. I have been so inexplicably drawn to the Native Americans, particularly the Cherokee. It is as Lucas mentioned. It is like going to an art museum and studying a painting or piece of artwork that so moved you that you never forgot it. Suddenly, you notice colors around you that you never noticed before. Colors that were part of that one object that moved your senses. After leaving Lucas’s office, I have looked into the hills as the leaves change and pictured the Shawnee warrior, strong and proud, walking silently through the leaves carpeting the ground. I feel the wind caress my skin in a different way. I feel more at ease and in tune with my surroundings, a sense of peace. It’s an awareness that is new to me. I am compelled to know more about the Native American culture. Lucas was right about that. This is only the beginning of my journey.
Works Cited
Barry M. Pritzker. “Tecumseh: Speech to Governor William Henry Harrison.” Encyclopedia of American Indian History. 2008. http://ebooks.ohiolink.edu/xtf-ebc/view?docId=tei/abc/AMINDH1E/AMINDH1E.xml;chunk.id=AMINDH1E.976;toc.depth=1;toc.id=AMINDH1E.976;brand=default.
Day, Jack. "Oklahoma University." Department of English at the University of Oklahoma: Dr. Kimberly Roppolo. 11 November 2011 .
Denny, Ebenezer. American Language Reprints. Vol. 14 & 21. Evolution Publishing. Southampton, Pennsylvania. 1860.
Fixico, Donald L. “Indian Removal Act.” Treaties with American Indians: An Encyclopedia of Rights, Conflicts, and Sovereignty. 2008. ttp://rave.ohiolink.edu/ebooks/ebc/NVAMTRE
Government, United States. "A Chronology of U.S. Hisotrical Documents: The Treaty of Greenville." 2009. University of Oklahoma. 3 October 2011 .
Katz, Neil. "Sweat Lodge Death Investigation Turns to Self-Help Guru James Arthur Ray." 12 October 2009. CBS News. 11 November 2011 .
Lucas, Dr. David. Dr. David Lucas Shawnee Interview Sybrina Hodges. 30 September 2011.
Roppolo, Kimberly. “Symbolic Racism, History, and Reality: The Real Problem with Indian Mascots.” Genocide of the Mind: An Anthology of Urban Indians. Ed. MariJo Moore. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press/Nations Books. 2003. 187-198.


[1] Tecumseh means “Panther in the Sky.” On the day he was born he was given this name because a meteor streaked across the sky at the time of his birth. He kept the name contrary to the Native American tradition of temporary birth names.
[2] Shawnee Name: Mesquaway K’wa lah wah páh kee, which translates to Red Morning

10 November, 2011

Gorilla

Day Dreamer

Ashurnasirpal II: Warrior King of the Assyrian Empire

…the mighty warrior who treads on the necks of his enemies, tramples down all foes, shatters the forces of the proud; the King who acts with the support of the great gods and whose hand has conquered all lands, who has subjugated all the mountains and receives their tribute, taking hostages and establishing his power over all countries.


Standard Inscription of Ashurnasirpal II (Harrison 778)


As a young man, Ashurnasirpal inherited the throne of Assyria from his father, Tukulti-Ninurta II, c. 883 B.C., becoming Ashurnasirpal II (hereinafter he will be referred to as Ashurnasirpal). His name means, “Ashur is guardian of the heir.” He is considered to be the first of the great warrior-kings of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The war tactics, style of governing, and architectural contributions of Ashurnasirpal II effectively contributed to the sudden resurrection of the Assyrian Empire.

Ashurnasirpal’s father had already secured the Babylonian border and marched westward and northward to reclaim territory lost during the lull of the empire. He died during his seventh year on the throne (Paley 4). Ashurnasirpal’s inheritance included authority over northern Mesopotamia and many territories to the west of the Euphrates thanks to his father’s military campaigns. At the beginning of his reign he was able to focus on expanding his empire instead of being plagued with defending it as his predecessors were (Stiebing 215-216).

At the time Ashurnasirpal claimed the throne, Assyria was just beginning to emerge once again as a great power. The empires of old were gone and new nations began to come forth forming alliances. Assyrian religion included the worship of several deities, the main two being Ashur, god of war and Ishtar, goddess of fertility and love. Reliefs found from the period of Ashurnasirpal’s reign depict genies protecting and caring for the palace. These carvings of the demigods were repeated throughout his temple. Ashur, the primary Assyrian god, is mentioned in all inscriptions and is credited for the success of all military campaigns. As king of Assyria Ashurnasirpal would have served as high priest to the god, Ashur and participated in most temple rituals. Assyrian kings believed that they were divinely appointed to rule by Ashur and therefore, had absolute power over all (The Metropolitan Museum of Art 6).

The reliefs found in Ashurnasirpal’s palace showed many scenes of lion hunting, which was a popular sport for the king. His prowess as a hunter was legendary. He was depicted very close to his prey, which showed his remarkable bravery (Harrison 778).

Ashurnasirpal wasted no time in taking on numerous military campaigns. During his first conquests, he was able to subjugate several small city-states north of Assyria and force the nobles to become his vassals. These vassals, in turn, supplied him with soldiers (Nardo 40). These soldiers, combined with professional soldiers, captives forced to serve, draftees, and hired mercenaries formed a well oiled machine of war under his command (Schomp 60-61).

The Assyrian army was an awesome sight which consisted of hundreds of thousands of soldiers. They used hand-to- hand combat, siege, and psychological techniques to destroy their foes. Under the command of Ashurnasirpal new war tactics were employed. These new tactics combined with a massive military unit created an impressive force. For example, the use of archer-pairs was instituted. This was a two man operation in which one man would use a large shield to protect him and another soldier would fire arrows at the enemy also protected by the shield (Nardo 40-41). A similar technique was used by his elite Charioteers. Chariots contained a shield bearer, an archer, and a driver. Just before Ashurnasirpal, around 1000 B.C., the Assyrian’s introduced the world’s first cavalry units. Wearing chain mail armor, leather boots and riding bareback, they were a formidable force, trampling their foes unimpeded (Schomp 61).

Ashurnasirpal was the first to use psychological tactics in battle. First, he chose small cities on the outskirts of the targeted nation. These cities were easily taken and Ashurnasirpal would have the inhabitants tortured, horribly mutilated and impaled. The city would be totally destroyed and burned. He then would “advertise” these deeds by having the accounts inscribed on monuments for all to see (Schomp 59-60).

Over the centuries, Assyrians perfected the siege tactic. The army would ravage the countryside around the city to destroy hunting grounds, therefore cutting off the outside food supply. The iron clad battering rams were sophisticated contraptions and resistant to flame. Sappers were used to chisel away at the walls as well, which sped up the process of breaching the walls of the city. Ramps built of dirt, debris or wood were constructed which allowed the army to infiltrate the city by simply walking over the walls (Nardo 43).

Ashurnasirpal first major campaign was to subdue the rebellions in the north. A tribe chieftain had united all of the tribes in the region within two years time. Facing a threat to the region, the allied tribes began to fortify the pass of Babite against Assyrian invasion. Ashurnasirpal regarded the action as rebellion. Although it took the Assyrians two years to defeat the entire region, Ashurnasirpal was obstinate in his battle to dominate and destroy the rebels (Goodspeed 189-190). Ashurnasirpal’s army relentlessly tracked his enemies, scaling the mountain terrain and taking prisoners. At his command, his army mutilated the captive’s bodies and, “their corpses were strewn like autumn leaves all over the mountains” (Harrison 774).

Ashurnasirpal’s brutality was becoming well known in the region. He took pleasure in maiming, burning, impaling, and flaying alive his victims, sometimes stretching the torture for days. His army would form pillars of heads at the city gates. An Assyrian soldier’s war prowess was determined by how many heads he collected (Goodspeed 201). Rebels were treated with extreme cruelty, more so than the average conquered victim. Men, women, and children were slaughtered without mercy. Every building was demolished down to its foundation, and all valuables were confiscated and used to further his military campaign. The rebellious nobles would often be flayed alive, their skin and heads posted on the walls of the captured city as a warning. For example, an account of his treatment of one rebellious city, in Ashurnasirpal’s own words reads,


"I captured the city; 600 of their warriors I put to the sword; 3,000 captives I burned with fire; I did not leave a single one among them alive to serve as a hostage. Hulai, their governor, I captured alive. Their corpses I formed into pillars; their young men and maidens I burned in the fire. Hulai…I flayed his skin I spread upon the wall of the city and the city, I destroyed" (Nardo 39).

Due to this blatant terrorism, many cities simply met him at their gates with gifts and bent to kiss the feet of the mighty king. Over the next six years of campaigning, Ashurnasirpal was able to expand the Assyrian Empire to control the upper Mesopotamian region, lands in middle and lower Mesopotamia, Lebanon, Tyre and even Cyprus is mentioned proving large bodies of water were not an issue for his army. Most of the coastal cities of the Mediterranean he seized as well, demanding tribute and devouring those cities who dared to refuse him (Goodspeed 192).
It was common practice for Assyrian kings to accept tribute from their enemies, thus allowing Assyria to further the empire with both land and riches. This tribute would be in silver, gold, precious jewels, herds of cattle, sheep, grain, and virtually anything of value that Assyria would accept as payment. Before Ashurnasirpal’s reign, many nations and city-states had withheld tribute payments until Assyria was forced to raise their army against them. There are many accounts of kings and nobles lying prostrate at the Assyrian king’s feet while paying tribute to avoid invasion. However, unlike his predecessors, Ashurnasirpal desired to replace the old system of tribute with more permanent Assyrian control over the conquered nations. He began occupying the lands that he conquered and through assimilation and deportation, his empire quickly expanded (Harrison 773). Ashurnasirpal was the first Assyrian king to use massive deportation, previously only a Hittite practice. He allowed some captives to relocate and settle in other Assyrian controlled areas and some he kept as slaves to serve his empire (Stiebing 224).

Thanks to the findings of Sir Austen Henry Layard in 1845, we are able to imagine the grand lifestyle of the Assyrian kings. Layard was a British subject who had left his job in London in 1839 and while traveling on horseback towards Ceylon, modern day Sri Lanka, he met a British ambassador who offered him a job excavating mounds of earth found near the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. From 1845 – 1851 he excavated Calah and found statues and the remains of the Assyrian palace built by Ashurnasirpal centuries before (Calliope 3).

Using slave labor, Ashurnasirpal constructed two fortresses earlier in his reign along the Euphrates River, Kar Ashurnasirpal and Nibarti Ashur (Goodspeed 193). However, his greatest architectural achievement was the restoration of Calah and the construction of his grand palace. The ruins of Calah are located just south of Nineveh along the Tigris and Zab Rivers, known today as Nimrud, Iraq. Calah’s population mainly consisted of deported, conquered slaves. He moved the Assyrian capital from Nineveh to Calah and using his spoils of war as resources and his prisoners of war as laborers he built his palace (Smith 72).

The palace was adorned in silver, gold, lead, copper and iron. He had, “beasts of the mountains and of the seas of white limestone and alabaster.” Wood was scarce in the region yet, he was able to build his palace using many exotic woods. This was clearly noted on an inscription found in Nimrud. It read, “a palace of cedar, cypress, juniper, boxwood, mulberry, pistachio-wood, and tamarisk, for my royal dwelling and for my lordly pleasure for all time I founded therein” (The Metropolitan Museum of Art 6-7).

His predecessors were fond of using brick and painted plaster surfaces but, Ashurnasirpal erected costly walls of stone with color enhancements. He introduced large-scale stone carving, a method developed by North Syrians and Hittites. These carvings can tell us approximately what time in his reign they were created. For example, the earliest carvings of the king tend to portray him as a slim muscular figure. Later carvings depict the king with a stockier build and even later carvings show the king as having a sort of pot belly. The exquisite detail of the reliefs show emotion in the face of the figure and the muscular structure is prominent in the neck, arms, and legs (Paley 6,13,14). One has to wonder if the intricate detail and correct muscle depiction of the calf muscles prevalent in Ashurnasirpal’s art is due to personal experience on the battlefield. Ashurnasirpal flayed many of his captives and would have seen how the muscle tissue was formed beneath the skin.

Great beasts, called Lamassu, stood guard by the two gates one must pass through in order to enter Ashurnasirpal’s throne room. These colossal statues were winged, human-headed animals and were terrifying to look upon. Their primary purpose was to ward off evil spirits although; they also welcomed the king upon his return to the palace (Harrison 777).

Although Ashurnasirpal was not the first king of Assyria to use irrigation canals, he increased production on an immense scale and constructed some canals reaching over 100 kilometers long. His royal inscriptions state that Nimrud had a water canal called Patti-Hegalli, which carried water from the upper Greater Zab River to the banks of the Tigris River. This is one of the largest known Assyrian canals ever recorded. It was so well built that it was in use two centuries later during the reign of Esarhaddon (Wilkinson, et al. 27).

At the end of his reign, Ashurnasirpal II was rightfully proud of his accomplishments. It is evident that he favored the practices of the North Syrians and Hittites, often employing the same practices in regards to the building of his palace and war techniques. Although his policies were extremely brutal, he accomplished much in his twenty-four year reign. He set an example for his successors and many of his war tactics were used by many nations throughout the centuries following his reign. He was succeeded by his son, Shalmaneser, III in 859 B.C. The Assyrian Empire eventually met its demise with the fall of Nineveh in 612 B.C.

Works Cited

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"Ashurnasirpal II." 17 February 2009. Wikipedia. 21 February 2009 .

Goodspeed, George Stephen, Ph.D. A History of the Babylonians and Assyrians. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1909.

Harrison, Richard. "Ashurnasirpal II and Ninth-Century Assyria." History Today 27.12 (1977): 772-778.

Nardo, Don. Ancient Mesopotamia. Farmington Hills: The Gale Group, Inc., 2004.

Paley, Samuel M. King of the World: Ashur-nasir-pal II of Assyria 883 - 859 B.C. Brooklyn, N.Y.: The Brooklyn Museum , 1976.

Schomp, Virginia. Ancient Mesopotamia: The Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. New York: Scholastic, Inc., 2004.

Smith, George. Assyrian Discoveries: An Account of Explorations and Discoveries on the Site of Nineveh, During 1873 and 1874. New York: Scribner, Armstrong, and Company, 1875.

Stiebing, William H, Jr. Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc., 2003.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art. "The Standard Inscription of Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 BC)." Art, The Metropolitan Museum of. The Great King, King of Assyria. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1946. 6-7.

Wilkinson, T. J., et al. "Landscape and Settlement in the Neo-Assyrian Empire." Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research (Nov. 2005): 23-56. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Ohio University, Athens, OH. 18 Feb. 2009 <http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=19926647&site=ehost-live>.